Action Potentials and The Cardiac Cycle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Activity Potentials and The Cardiac Cycle - Essay Example ld take around 200 to 500 milliseconds to finish and led from cell to cell, more slow contrasted with under 2 milliseconds in the activity possibilities in skeletal muscles (Seeley, Stephens, and Tate, 2007: 333). The accompanying figures delineate the stages or periods of an activity potential: resting potential, depolarization, repolarization, and coming back to resting potential or the last repolarization stage. The resting potential is the phase when the cell isn't leading a drive (Rothenberg and Chapman, 1989). At this resting stage, the centralization of sodium (Na+) particles is higher outside the cell than within. Then again, the potassium (K+) particles are obviously higher inside the cell, contrasted with the outside. As such, the sodium-potassium siphon is continually busy working to guarantee an increasingly positive ionic condition outside the cell film, in this manner leaving the cell inside exceptionally negative (MCB-HHMI Outreach, 2005). Depolarization denotes the initial phase in imparting a sign or activity potential, wherein the adversely charged cell inside is upset by the passageway positive Na+ particles, as should be obvious in the above figure (MCB-HHMI Outreach, 2005). Further, it is in this phase Na+ channels open to offer route to the dispersion of Na+ into the cell, simultaneously, the K+ channels would simply start to open however closes promptly to diminish the porousness of cell to K+ (Seeley, Stephens, and Tate, 2007: 333). We can see in figure 2 that the potassium and sodium channels resemble doors that open to offer route to their separate particles. As needs be, the opening and shutting of these film diverts are mindful in the creation of activity possibilities, because of the progressions in cell layer penetrability (Seeley, Stephens, and Tate, 2007: 333). Likewise, calcium (Ca++) channels gradually open to cause Ca++ particles to diffuse into the cell, which additionally impersonate depolarizatio n (Seeley, Stephens, and Tate, 2007: 333). An activity possible triggers

Free Essays on Henry Knox

Henry Knox was a trooper, conceived in Boston, Massachusetts, 25 July, 1750; kicked the bucket in Thomaston, Maine, 25 October, 1806. He got decent training in the schools of his local city, early showed a preference for military assistance. At twenty he started business as a book retailer, he took sides energetically with the settlements in their contention with the motherland, and after the clashes of Lexington and Concord surrendered his business and rushed to join the military that was gathered at Cambridge. He took on heroically in the conflict of Bunker Hill, and when a while later joined the military, he had the position of colonel. While battling in the city Washington found himself humiliated by the joy of adequate cannons, and youthful Knox thought of acquiring a flexibly from Lake George and the posts on the Canadian boondocks. The long parade moved gradually, yet finally it arrived at Boston, furthermore, as it went into the American lines it was gotten with yells by the soldiers. Knox was heartily praised by Washington, and congress, as a compensation for his administrations, made him brigadier-general of the big guns. From this time Knox was the consistent buddy of Washington all through the war and his warm close to home companion and advisor. In 1798, when war appeared to be likely with France, he was called to have his spot in the military. However, the undermined threat cruising by, he came back to Thomaston. Maine. His demise was brought about by his unintentionally gulping a chicken-bone, which caused interior irritation. Knox was genial, upstanding, and unadulterated in his private life, and however impassioned, rash, and eager, he was vet sound in judgment and cool in real life. He had shown the entirety of the qualities that were perfect for a warship and furthermore the family man of his time and place.... Free Essays on Henry Knox Free Essays on Henry Knox Henry Knox was an officer, conceived in Boston, Massachusetts, 25 July, 1750; kicked the bucket in Thomaston, Maine, 25 October, 1806. He got decent instruction in the schools of his local city, early displayed a desire for military help. At twenty he started business as a book shop, he took sides heartily with the provinces in their contention with the motherland, and after the clashes of Lexington and Concord deserted his business and rushed to join the military that was collected at Cambridge. He took on heroically in the conflict of Bunker Hill, and when a short time later joined the military, he had the position of colonel. While battling in the city Washington found himself humiliated by the bliss of adequate cannons, and youthful Knox thought of acquiring a flexibly from Lake George and the posts on the Canadian boondocks. The long parade moved gradually, however finally it arrived at Boston, furthermore, as it went into the American lines it was gotten with yells by the soldiers. Knox was heartily commended by Washington, and congress, as an award for his administrations, made him brigadier-general of the cannons. From this time Knox was the consistent partner of Washington all through the war and his warm close to home companion and advisor. In 1798, when war appeared to be likely with France, he was called to have his spot in the military. However, the undermined peril cruising by, he came back to Thomaston. Maine. His demise was brought about by his inadvertently gulping a chicken-bone, which caused inside aggravation. Knox was friendly, upstanding, and unadulterated in his private life, and however vigorous, hasty, and excited, he was vet sound in judgment and cool in real life. He had shown the entirety of the attributes that were perfect for a warship and furthermore the family man of his time and place....

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Imperialism Is The Act Of A Larger - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 664 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2019/04/15 Category Politics Essay Level High school Tags: Imperialism Essay Did you like this example? Imperialism is the act of a larger, stronger country taking over a smaller, weaker country politically, socially, and economically. The 18th and 19th century marked the Age of Imperialism, as European countries strived for more land and power. This was due to many reasons such as economic power, glory, religion, and nationalism. Nigeria is one of the various countries that were imperialized during this time period. Although imperialism happened in 1901, some of its consequences and effects still shape Nigeria today. The long term effects of imperialism in Nigeria include the lack of national identity and terrorism. Short term effects include the loss of traditional customs and the benefits of unification. Most of the effects of imperialism in Nigeria carried until today are negative. Out of the many effects such as poverty and corruption, the most impactful effects are the lack of national identity and terrorism. However, some argue that imperialism was beneficial to Nigeria. In fact, the country Nigeria itself could not have existed at all if it wasn’t imperialized. After Nigeria formally became a British Protectorate in 1901, it was unified by Lord Frederick, a british governor in 1914. Before, the land of Nigeria included diverse ethnic groups and empires, who in fact, did not get along at all. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Imperialism Is The Act Of A Larger" essay for you Create order However, because Nigeria was forcefully united despite the strong cultural differences and diverse ethnic groups that were not in peace, Nigeria lacks national identity, even today. The main purpose of this idea of nationality is to unite all the social, religious and ethnic groups to make them identify as Nigerians all together despite their distinct differences. This a very hard task for Nigerians to accomplish today for there are many conflicts existing between groups that prohibit them from having peace with each other. Furthermore, this has caused terrorism, especially by Nigerias militant Islamist group Boko Haram, who are fighting for their desire of Nigeria being Islamic. This group has caused havoc in not only Nigeria, but also in Africa’s most populous countries, through a campaign of bombings and attacks. Not only has this problem caused many deaths, but is further leading the country into poverty. If the different groups weren’t forcefully unified to be Nigeria, this state of chaos might have been prevented. Both of these long term effects are very harmful and negative, thus suggesting how imperialism in Nigeria was harmful. Some effects that occurred when Nigeria was imperialized include the loss of traditional customs and the benefits of unification. One of the many reasons why Britain wanted Nigeria was to spread christianity. So when Nigeria was colonized, Britain forced its religion and traditions on Nigerians, converting them into Christians. Furthermore, as before imperialism tribal leaders were elected by its people, chiefs were being appointed by a governor who was appointed by a British. Thus, Britain was controlling all of Nigerian tribes indirectly through their leaders. This way, Britain forced its traditions and cultures on the Nigerian tribes. There were in fact, some positive effects to imperialism in Nigeria. Because Nigeria was united, it was able to gain its independence from Great britain. One of the reasons why it was so easy for Britain to imperialize Nigeria was because it was consisted of diverse tribal groups who were not unified. But as the groups had the same goal and were unified by the British, with them fighting all together, were able to achieve independence. However, this is a short term effect for Nigeria’s unification was harmful on the long run, as mentioned in the previous paragraph. I believe that effects of imperialism in Nigeria were overall very negative, for Nigeria does not have a stable government. Nigeria is a federal republic whose government operates as a representative democracy. However, the government only looks out for the wealthy, as they strive for wealth and power, ignoring the country’s serious problems such as poverty, and are weak in fighting the terrorists. Nigeria, due to the effects of imperialism, is in crisis today.

The Truth About Video Games Essay - 1415 Words

The Truth about Video Games Since the industry of video games has been around, people have been skeptical about video games and their effects to our society. People are so used criticizing video games, claiming that they only corrupt our families, ruin our social lives, and make us and our children more violent. People that are against video games also claim that spending your time reading books is a better and more beneficial alternative. But to blindly claim these things while there are so many benefits for playing video games is really absurd. In the essay â€Å"Games† written by Steven Johnson he talks about multiple advantages that there are to playing video games over reading books. Shigeru Miyamoto, a renowned video game designer, once†¦show more content†¦During the study, conducted from May through August, 2002, the surgeons also played three video games for 25 minutes while the researchers assessed their gaming skills.†(JAMA and Archives Journals). The report concluded that the t op 33 percent of video gaming skill surgeons made 47 percent fewer errors, performed 39 percent faster and scored 41 percent more points overall on the video game than the bottom 33 percent. Data collected also pointed out that training surgeons with video games can, in fact, make surgeons perform better while handling different types of surgical procedures. Books are great to find written instructions on how to perform surgery, yet, surgeons may not be able to perform an actual surgery without flaw because they have not had the experience necessary beforehand. From this data collected the authors concluded that video games may be of use to help train surgeons and serve as a practice or learning tool as well. All in all, playing video games can improve hand-eye coordination and also serve as a learning tool. Video games can also teach problem-solving skills and enhance current ones. Many games out there are mindless and require no skill to play. But most require someShow MoreRelatedThe Truth About Video Games1124 Words   |  5 Pagestechnology has developed rapidly, video games have become more realistic in terms of violence. These games and systems have reached second in demand in the media industry following television (Rottenberg et al. 30). The human species is an inherently violent species in this generation. When we play video games for extended hours at a time, the game removes us from reality into a new dream world killing and fighting monsters, enemies, and villains. Most humans believe video games do not cause violence; howeverRead MoreThe Truth about Video Games and Violent Children 1222 Words   |  5 Pages Violent video games are not training kids to be murderers. The video game industries have been called against and blamed for making kids more aggressive and violent fo r years. Although recent studies show that violent video games have been useful for kids to get their anger out. Only some kids were found to be aggressive after violent video game play, but they had three specific traits that lead to this aggressive behavior (â€Å"Violent...). Not all kids are affected by violent video games, but peopleRead MoreCorrelation between Gun Violence and Video Games in the Article, The Truth About Video Games and Gun Violence by Erik Kain753 Words   |  3 PagesThe article, â€Å"The Truth About Video Games and Gun Violence† by Erik Kain discusses how video games and gun violence correlates. The author opens up with someone by the name of Aaron Alexis who resorted to gun violence while playing video games that contained violence. There is a violent video game that scares parents and behavioral experts. There has been a debate on whether people who play video games later have violent behavior. Throughout the years, video games continue to show i mages portrayingRead MoreGrand Theft Childhood the Surprising Truth About Video Games and What Parents Can Do1827 Words   |  8 PagesIn â€Å"Grand Theft Childhood,† Professors Lawrence Kutner and Cheryl Olson do a good job of investigating whether violent video games are bad for kids. They present both sides of the argument in an unbiased way. In the early chapters of â€Å"Grand Theft Childhood† Kutner and Olson take on the relation between depictions of violence and their effects on child behavior by arguing that amount of crime decreased dramatically during the peak of violent penny gaff viewing in England. Penny gaffs were inexpensiveRead MoreViolent Video Games in the Twenty-First Century: The Truth Essay1649 Words   |  7 Pageshalf-truth. The nation would come to see a cause for teen violence where there was none. Fear, in this case, would result in one of the many half-truths that are still heavily debated to this day. Although this half-truth regards video games resulting in teenage violence, the effects of video games on children and teenagers do not generally result in future adolescent violence problems. The relation between teenage violence and violent video games covers an immense area for argument. A video game’sRead MoreThe Effects of Video Games on Children1610 Words   |  6 PagesMany participants also suggested that the games caused the children to have strong imaginations, while a few disagreed. 61.0% said that electronic games did not cause the children to lack good behavior. The survey also showed that electronic games do not cause the children to be skilled in terms of their self expression, and do not cause them visual stress. On the issue concerning obesity, the percentage of the respondents who said that electronic games caused children to be obese was equal to theRead MoreEssay about Video Games and Violence: Cause, or Scapegoat?1116 Words   |  5 Pagescoming out about video games is bad. A student tried to kill his fellow classmates, and he was an avid Call of Duty player. A study has been released that proves that playing video games will turn you into a criminal. The many benefits of games and gaming, such as their possible applications to education and their ability to tell more complex stories than other forms of media, are almost universally ignored. I know better, though. Between the lifetime I’ve spent playing and loving video games, and theRead MoreVideo Games Effects On Teenagers1716 Words   |  7 Pagesform, and video gaming is a huge part of our culture. You can ignore or embrace video games and imbue them with the best artistic quality. People are enthralled with video games in the same way as other people love the cinema or theatre† (Serkis, n.d.). Video games have shot onto the scene within the past 50 years. With technology advancing as fast as it has today, video games are becoming more and more realistic, as well as inherently more violent. The pressing question of today’s video games is, areRead MoreVideo Games: A Scapegoat for Youth Violence Essay examples1265 Words   |  6 Pagesmost recen t medium are video games. Aided by crime-saturated news reports, a lot of people are convinced that video game violence transfers to real-life youth crimes like the school massacres. They think that violent video games make people violent, but that is not the case. Violent people play violent video games. Not everyone who plays video games are violent, but those who already are violent will play them as an outlet for their frustration and rage. If anything, video games keep violent peopleRead MoreVideo Games : Stay Away From Art957 Words   |  4 PagesThe discussion about videogames having the credit to be considered art is already dated. When presenting his reasons, Eric Zimmerman - the author of the text Games, stay away from art. Please- makes it clear that the subject is not only old but also pointless. Some of his motives contradicts at some point of the article, but all that we can conclude of clear way is the discussion that video games wheater or not can be considered art will never debunk its cultural value in the media and in the life

Psychological Perspective on Assisted Suicide Free Essays

string(52) " opposition thinks that suffering is the real harm\." One of the most hotly debated topics going on now is the one concerning the ethics of assisted suicide and euthanasia. Nowadays with all the progress that the medical profession has gained, people who are terminally ill have more options, and there have been continued efforts to give them the â€Å"right to die† when they choose this option. I was interested in researching this topic because I think the debate has a lot to do with psychology, which I am very interested in. We will write a custom essay sample on Psychological Perspective on Assisted Suicide or any similar topic only for you Order Now This dilemna has been hotly debated and I was open to seeing how this movement was progressing. Basically, in the beginning I was a proponent on this issue, and believed people should not be denied their wishes when they wanted to end their pain. However, I was open to learning more about the opposite stance and what the reasons for opposition were. It always seemed unusual to me that suicide was not illegal, but yet it was illegal to assist in one even with a consenting party. I wondered how this could be, and how people could deny people this right in unending pain. There never seems to be a prosecution of doctors who participate in these acts, even though they frequently go to court. I wondered why this occured and what the laws really said regarding this. I also wondered how people distinguished between forgoing medical interventions and actually assisting in the suicide. As I approached the research, my main questions were regarding opposers. I really did not know all the problems that could occur. Research about this brought to light many things that are not discussed in the media, although this is a highly publicized subject. I found that it is very difficult to bring the debate to an end because all the arguments are really just matters of opinion. Opposers and protestors have good arguments. No one really knows what would happen, so they just use opinions to predict it. Because of all the media attention, I will try not to discuss the many things that are already known. I found myself intrigued at what I didn’t know, and found my views profoundly affected. After reading current articles about what was going on legally and about cases, reviewing the history of this topic, and reading books showing the two opposing viewpoints, I have made my conclusions. I will show how people are currently handling this and how they are being viewed. I will discuss the main arguments on both sides. Finally, I will show what I concluded from this and how my views have been altered by information that I did not know before. I will begin by explaining how the terms are defined. Euthanasia is taken from Greek roots and means â€Å"good death. â€Å"3 Active euthanasia is a direct and deliberate intervention to kill the patient. It is â€Å"intended to end the life of the competent, terminally ill patient who makes a fully voluntary and persistent request for aid in dying. â€Å"8 Voluntary euthanasia is when the patient requests the action, and it is involuntary if the patient is not mentally competent enough to make the right choice. Passive euthanasia is witholding treatment from a patient. A physician assisted suicide is when the patient does the actual act, but the physician provides either enough information or the means to do it. 8 One source defines it as a â€Å"desperate measure, justified only in exceptional cases where every effort has first been made to care for a dying person by other means. â€Å"4 The terms euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide are usually used for the same thing and are not usually distinguished from one another. Usually the means of suicide is lethal doses of a poison such as pills, an injection, or gas. Motive causes euthanasia to be distinguished from murder, because its intent is merciful and is done out of kindness. The physician’s intentions can make considerable difference in regard to how their act will be classified. The most common reason for a patient to want this aid is because of a terminal illness. Unbearable suffering has caused the person to become intolerant of the physical and/or emotional pain. The other reason is a physical handicap that is debilitating and the patient would rather die than live with it. Most people are able to cope with this, but in some cases it is impossible for the patient to do so. In ancient times, euthanasia was encountered often. However, suicide was condemned. During the sixteenth century, some people began to see it as more of a personal choice. It eventually became decriminalized, but assisted suicide and euthanasia are still crimes in most countries. 3 The introduction of powerful analgesics caused a rise in the interest in the â€Å"right to die† movement. It was advocated in the late 1800’s, and has been a topic for debate since the early 1900’s. Doctors have been helping patients die for centuries. Some cultures today have people that will stop eating and wait to die when they become seriously ill. 13 The â€Å"right to die movement† is encouraged by several factors. Modern technology has come along so as to extend human life. The fear of the dying process is of great concern to some people, especially when it accompanies physical and psychological suffering. Patients are becoming more in charge of their own fate and have more of a voice. Finally, there is concerns about the high health care costs. They cost more than 60 billion annually, and 1/3 of Medicaid payments go to patients in their last year of life. 13 Medicine’s main goal has always been the preservation of life. Now, this is being challenged in an attempt to change it. The two sides of the issue are being debated. On one side are the people who think it is not a physicians place to kill a patient, because he/she should only help, not harm. The opposition thinks that suffering is the real harm. You read "Psychological Perspective on Assisted Suicide" in category "Essay examples" The debate comes at the point of the onset of the terminal illness, when it will be time to decide on the means. This is sometimes called the â€Å"Kevorkian moment. â€Å"2 Proponents give examples of people who could be helped, while opponents give counterexamples of people who may be harmed. There are many moral and legal considerations. The support for a physician’s participation is increasing. According to opinion polls, about 60% of people in the U. S. are supporters. About 15% of physicians practice it when it is justified. 7 It is actually impossible to know for sure how much takes place because incidents are usually kept secret to avoid prosecution. Most people who have reported that they would consider it give reasons such as that they would not want to be a burden, would not want to live in pain, or would not want to depend on machines or others. The main argument for the support of euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide is that people should have the right to control their life and death, and should be able to end their lives when they wish if they are suffering needlessly. It is argued that it is a private choice and society has no right to be concerned. They usually portray it as a case of individual liberty. One source states that â€Å"euthanasia, if legalized, would be the ultimate civil liberty, since it would secure the freedom to determine and to control our own death. â€Å"8 Physicians must then decide if they are willing to take part in either directly killing the patient or by assisting the patient in suicide. The physician should follow the demands of the patient, even if it means killing them, because that would respect their wishes and the rights of the patient. Physicians treat patients with the purpose of restoring health. If the patient can’t be restored to a reasonable level of living, it shouldn’t be wrong to discontinue it. Euthanasia supporters often try to get sympathy by relating stories to make one feel like suicide is the only option in their case. The media has sparked a lot of interest, and continues to show stories like this. Simi Linton, psychologist, says, â€Å"I’m disturbed at how the media treats it, as: here are these poor folks; let’s help them end their lives† (qtd. in 1). It makes it seem as if would be inhumane to deny anyone this option. Basically, it is the quality of life that is the main concern of the patient. They may feel that life is not worth living in their state. It would not be humane to insist that every means be taken to keep someone alive. A physician’s main concern is to relieve suffering, so sometimes there is only one way to achieve that goal. At the time that efforts are no longer doing any good, the main concern is to make the patient comfortable and alleviate symptoms such as pain. 6 Drugs do not always get rid of all the pain, especially when it is excruciating. Sometimes a patient will be drugged into unconciousness with severe pain that cannot be controlled. 9 This does not seem like effective pain management to me. I don’t believe people will be satisfied living in such a state as that. They would want to be put out of their misery. Legalization would cause many changes. It would give rights to the person who does it, rather than the person who dies. It is about the right to kill, rather than the right to die. 9 Physicians would need to be trained in more areas regarding this, such as information about medications and dosage, and about the mentality of the patient. They will need to gain expertise in understanding patients’ motivations for requesting it, assessing their mental status, diagnosing and treating depression. The medical profession is developing greater expertise in managing terminal illness but would need to develop similar expertise in responding to requests for physician-assisted suicide. The debates over assisted suicide have forced clinicians to be more aware of what can be done to relieve suffering. Doctors are improving pallitive care and their own behavior. Patients are becoming more aware of their options. The problems associated with legalizing assisted suicide are usually not talked about when the proponents make their argument. The discussion of the potential for abuse, the ways it could be prevented or better helped are put on a backburner. The main argument against legaliziation is that human life is sacred, and it is not a human right to take it away. Some say that there is no need for suicide, because health care should resolve all problems and pain management has come a long way. Most people who commit suicide suffer from depression, so it is often debated whether this could be the reason for someone wanting assisted suicide. Often, when their depression is treated, the patient responds well, and would like to live. A regular physician cannot make the determination of whether a patient is suffering from depression. This is something that is difficult to diagnose in terminally ill patients. Just because a patient requests suicide, doesn’t mean this will be an appropriate solution. Sometimes, a patient may even request suicide, but when the time draws near, they change their mind because it did not seem so imminent before. The will to request the suicide must be voluntary, but this decision is left up to the physician. How can a physician judge whether it is voluntary or not? It is also difficult to determine what terminal is. When people say that it should be reserved for people who are terminally ill, they cannot define it. It is used to mean someone whose death will occur in a relatively short time. Some people may say that if they will die in 6 months it is considered terminal, but it is difficult to determine exactly how long someone has to live. They may live much longer than that. A person could also be terminal who is in a vegitative state, but will live for years in that state with continued medicine. People cannot reach an agreement on what the definition of terminal would be, some even say old age is terminal. Marianne Smith, Program Development Director of the Death with Dying National Center defines it as â€Å"an illness in which there is no chance of recovery and that death is imminent. â€Å"15 Activists of euthanasia use the demonstration that suicide is the only means to control unbearable pain. Most pain is supposed to be able to be eliminated, or greatly reduced. Many people do not get enough pain control. 6 One reason is the underknowlege many physicians have about this, and that they are afraid the patient will become addicted. Also, too much pain medication can cause symptoms that may be worse than the disease was itself. One source says that â€Å"patients and physicians alike may be unaware of the options available in the medical system, including advances in pain control that could help patients but are not routinely provided. â€Å"3 There may be no solution to these problems, but some things can be done. Better health care education, more access to health care, and informing patients of their rights. 6 Everyone has the right to pain relief. Patients should get adequate health care, and not killed. Physicians argue that if good care of the dying is being provided, then a request for suicide would be rare. 4 Some patients may want to consider suicide, but are incapable of administering medicine. Some people may also lose their mental capabilities, and will be unable to request it. It is difficult to assess fairness in cases like these. Some people use a form of advance directive and make their request before deterioration occurs. It is hard to extend the same rights to all patients without causing abuse. If someone is unable to communicate their request, it would be frightening for someone to make that decision for them and to say that their life is not worth living, so we must kill them. There is great potential for abuse if it were to be legalized. Depressed people, elderly, and very frightened people would be greatly affected. People may feel pressured into giving up. Elderly are especially vulnerable to this. Now that there are more people living longer, this problem will increase. They may tend to feel they are a burden on their families, or are selfishly consuming resources. If a physician advocates it, they also may be swayed. People may also feel distrustful of the physician’s advice. This may cause a hardship in getting appropriate care. 10 Legalization will only encourage more people to take part in it. It does not seem as if we would be ready for this to occur, because we are only just beginning to explore some realms of the medical world. It took a long time to figure out about adequate care for many patients and when is the right time to withdraw life support, so it would not seem that we would be ready for this step. The â€Å"slippery slope† argument is used by opponents, saying that legalization will lead to involuntary euthanasia. My own opinion is that if assisted suicide were legalized, we may not be as inclined to advance medical progress and knowlege. It would seem easier to just put the patient out of his/her misery. They may not use their experience to increase what we know about medicine and learn how to help the illness, or better cope with it. Proponents have said that euthanasia should be considered â€Å"medical treatment. † If this is so, there could be great potential for abuse. Then it may be more likely to be administered to people who cannot make the request. Some decisions that have gone to court say that assisted suicide is a constitutional right and that someone else can make the decision for the patient. If direct killing can be legalized by someone else, someone who is not competent could be euthanized without ever expressing that wish. It seems to be inevitable that patient are going to be killed without permission if legalization occurs, even with rules about consent. The main argument of how abuse of the practice could occur is called the â€Å"slippery slope argument. † It says that â€Å"even if particular acts of killing are sometimes morally justified with particularly pain-ridden patients, sanctioning practices of killing would run serious social risks of abuse, misuse and neglect. 3 The bad consequences of legalization would occur over time as this practice became more used. Another potential form of abuse lies in the fact that it would be cheaper to euthanize a patient than to continue medical treatment. It is thought that it could become a means of health care cost containment. Some of the main supporters of euthanasia are people concerned about lowering health care costs. 6 Religion has caused many people to debate it. Most churches are adamantly opposed to the idea of suicide. However, some Christians believe that God would not want them to suffer. 9 Although most religions and churches disagree with intentionally killing a patient, many people who hold this stand will allow the withdrawal of life support. It is believed that there is a difference between killing and letting die. Someone who is against euthanasia may agree with letting someone die who is being kept alive solely by life support that is not really helping them. 3 People feel that the intent in these cases is different. The more accepted approach does not involve killing. One interpretation of the difference shows that the intent is different because actively killing is aiming at death, and withdrawing support simply accepts that we are limited to help the dying and cannot reverse the process. 8 However, some peole believe that since death is the outcome no matter what, there is no moral difference between them. Another matter of intent distiction regards what is called the â€Å"double effect. † A physician will administer a pain medication to relieve pain, but knows that it may cause death. The patient would be in pain without it, but it may cause death if it is administered. It is usually believed to be moral if the doctor’s intent is to relieve the suffering, and not to cause death. It is allowed if the death is foreseen but not intended, because it is the intent that makes it wrong. Although suicide is no longer a crime, giving assistance in it is, everywhere except for Switzerland, Germany, Norway, and Uraguay. In Australia, a law was passed that allows terminally ill patients to ask for assistance by injection or taking drugs themselves. 7 There is a debate about it because Parliament wants to overturn the statute, which is the world’s only voluntary euthanasia statute. In the Netherlands, it is actually a crime, but it has been ruled that physicians may assist in death under certain conditions. Some of these are that the patient must be ruled competent, and two doctors must conclude that the patient has less than 6 months to live. 8 The United States has used them as an example to see what would happen if it were to occur here. They are having problems with it, mainly with abuse. The physicians there have reported that the main reasons people request it are â€Å"low quality of life, the relatives, inability to cope, and no prospect for improvement. Some sources show that people are requesting it for physical symptoms that it is almost ridiculou that they would go to such an extreme measure for. I think that the potential for abuse here may be great, because it is getting out of hand over there. People are becoming afraid to go to hospitals because euthanasia is becoming so commonplace. It now accounts for 15% of deaths. 1000 unconsenting deaths occur each year. 1. In 1994, the state of Oregon passed a ballot that gives limited physician-assisted suicide legality. This makes it the first in the nation to do so. A doctor must determine the patient has less than six months to live. A second doctor must decide that they are mentally competent and not suffering from depression. The patient must request it in writing with two witnesses, and then 48 hours before the doctor delivers the prescription the request must be repeated orally. 1 It must be a voluntary act. However, those jugements are left to the physician. So far, it has never been put into action. Other states are considering similar legislation, such as California which has proposed a law that is similar to the guidelines that the Dutch have adopted. Lawsuits in Washington State and New York were ruled by the 9th and 2nd U. S. Circuit Courts of Appeals that laws prohibiting physician-assisted suicide are unconstitutional. The legal fate will be determined by the Supreme Court. In 1990, the decision of Cruzan v. Missouri Department of Health resulted in people having the right to avoid unwanted medical treatment, including food and water. 5 It recognized the right to terminate unwanted medical treatment even when death would be the result. 14 People often use the Constitution as a basis for argument. The 14th amendment prohibits the state from depriving â€Å"any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law. † So to deny a dying patient medical assistance when requested is to â€Å"threaten this patient’s request for help is judged denial of constitutionally protected due process. â€Å"4 As the courts were in session to hear a case about whether terminally ill people have a constitutional right to physician assisted suicide, demonstrators sang and picketed outside a Supreme Court building. The emotions of the rights issue has been compared to that of abortion. Both of these issues dig into whether we have the right to choose such personal issues. People can feel very strongly about the issues of mercy killing, whether they oppose or support it. The lack of laws cause people to avoid prosecution for assisting in a suicide. Kevorkian has escaped prosecution because there is not a state law prohibiting it, according to a Michigan judge. 9 People are afraid that activities such as his would become widespread if assisted suicide were legalized. His actions have been opposed not because of the assistance, but because he had no real relationship with his patients and had not given them any kind of clinical evaluation. Many were also not terminally ill. 3 It seems to show what is lacking in the medical sysytem, or what could become of it. Every case of assisted suicide is not convicted or prosecuted, even in states that make it illegal. However, the fact that there are many landmark â€Å"right to die† cases, shows that the law is commited to the prohibition. However, the procedures are not described as killing. If this were the case, the act would have to be justified similar to killing someone out of self defense. 4 It is hard to define the conditions that there must be in order to make it legal, because there is so much that we do not know. For euthanasia to be ethical, there must be certain guidelines. The person must be a mature adult, and has been shown to be mentally competent and willing to make the decision. Some medical help will have already been given, and it should seem that the fight is hopeless. 9 Many organizations have beliefs on this and they try to educate the public on euthanasia and what their views are. I contacted Marianne Smith, the Program Development Director of the Death with Dignity National Center. 15 She explained to me in e-mail how the organization feels about euthanasia and what they do to educate the public about it. The organization is working toward better health care for paients. She feels that assisted suicide should be legal, but that â€Å"physician-assisted dying should be the response of last resort,† and â€Å"when all other options fail to relieve unbearable suffering, when the patient is acting on his or her own initiative, is not clinically depressed, and is capable of administering the medication personally. The people who could be elgible are â€Å"only terminally ill, competent adults with decisionmanking capacity. † I also asked whether euthanasia could be avoided with adequate pain medicine. Her response was that â€Å"Physicians, medical associations and hospices all have stated that not all pain can be controlled. † Their view, which is one I encountered a lot, is that the medical professionals have not been trained adequately in pain management. Regarding the issues of potential â€Å"slippery slope† abuse, she says that physician’s aid in dying is more common than people realize, and legalization would just make it happen openly, instead of secretly. However, the state regulation should provide strict guidelines and penalties for violations. I think that it is hard to make sure that the decisions are correct, so it should be carefully thought out. We are dealing with a very serious issue, which is death. It should not be an easy decision to make or to carry out. Becaue death is the consequence, the decision to kill oneself, and carrying it out should be very difficult and carefully thought out. This would help ensure that people have thought about it enough and know that this is the best decision. I don’t know how a solution can be thought of to deal with the debate, but things such as more health care education and informing patients of their rights should be a consideration. I hope that if legalization ever were to take place, that they would carefully restrict who qualified for euthanasia. After all my research, most of my questions have been answered. It is difficult to come to a conclusion because there is no right or wrong answer. I don’t know how anyone can determine what should be done. Who can put a price on life and say who has the right to die? The basic choice is whether to let doctors help people die, and if so, how? I have found many great arguments either opposing or protesting this issue, which has led me to my final conclusions. When I began this paper, I dived into it thinking that I was going to condone the idea of assisted suicide. I knew I could convince someone that it should be the moral and legal thing to do. I could not imagine a life without the ultimate choice or having to endure great suffering. I was going to defend this side, but also show the opposing side. Once I got into the research, I found many facts that I had not known before about why it has not yet been legalized. Many questions and opinions showed me that there were many things I had not even bothered to think about before. What a surprise to me that I could begin a project as a supporter, and then turn around my views. I now see where the opposers are coming from. There are just too many problems and considerations to think about before this could ever happen, and there are alternate solutions. I cannot say that this has given me a complete turn in the opposite direction, but I am definitely leaning toward the opposing side except in extreme circumstances when nothing could ever help the patient. How to cite Psychological Perspective on Assisted Suicide, Essay examples

Psychological Perspective on Assisted Suicide Free Essays

string(52) " opposition thinks that suffering is the real harm\." One of the most hotly debated topics going on now is the one concerning the ethics of assisted suicide and euthanasia. Nowadays with all the progress that the medical profession has gained, people who are terminally ill have more options, and there have been continued efforts to give them the â€Å"right to die† when they choose this option. I was interested in researching this topic because I think the debate has a lot to do with psychology, which I am very interested in. We will write a custom essay sample on Psychological Perspective on Assisted Suicide or any similar topic only for you Order Now This dilemna has been hotly debated and I was open to seeing how this movement was progressing. Basically, in the beginning I was a proponent on this issue, and believed people should not be denied their wishes when they wanted to end their pain. However, I was open to learning more about the opposite stance and what the reasons for opposition were. It always seemed unusual to me that suicide was not illegal, but yet it was illegal to assist in one even with a consenting party. I wondered how this could be, and how people could deny people this right in unending pain. There never seems to be a prosecution of doctors who participate in these acts, even though they frequently go to court. I wondered why this occured and what the laws really said regarding this. I also wondered how people distinguished between forgoing medical interventions and actually assisting in the suicide. As I approached the research, my main questions were regarding opposers. I really did not know all the problems that could occur. Research about this brought to light many things that are not discussed in the media, although this is a highly publicized subject. I found that it is very difficult to bring the debate to an end because all the arguments are really just matters of opinion. Opposers and protestors have good arguments. No one really knows what would happen, so they just use opinions to predict it. Because of all the media attention, I will try not to discuss the many things that are already known. I found myself intrigued at what I didn’t know, and found my views profoundly affected. After reading current articles about what was going on legally and about cases, reviewing the history of this topic, and reading books showing the two opposing viewpoints, I have made my conclusions. I will show how people are currently handling this and how they are being viewed. I will discuss the main arguments on both sides. Finally, I will show what I concluded from this and how my views have been altered by information that I did not know before. I will begin by explaining how the terms are defined. Euthanasia is taken from Greek roots and means â€Å"good death. â€Å"3 Active euthanasia is a direct and deliberate intervention to kill the patient. It is â€Å"intended to end the life of the competent, terminally ill patient who makes a fully voluntary and persistent request for aid in dying. â€Å"8 Voluntary euthanasia is when the patient requests the action, and it is involuntary if the patient is not mentally competent enough to make the right choice. Passive euthanasia is witholding treatment from a patient. A physician assisted suicide is when the patient does the actual act, but the physician provides either enough information or the means to do it. 8 One source defines it as a â€Å"desperate measure, justified only in exceptional cases where every effort has first been made to care for a dying person by other means. â€Å"4 The terms euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide are usually used for the same thing and are not usually distinguished from one another. Usually the means of suicide is lethal doses of a poison such as pills, an injection, or gas. Motive causes euthanasia to be distinguished from murder, because its intent is merciful and is done out of kindness. The physician’s intentions can make considerable difference in regard to how their act will be classified. The most common reason for a patient to want this aid is because of a terminal illness. Unbearable suffering has caused the person to become intolerant of the physical and/or emotional pain. The other reason is a physical handicap that is debilitating and the patient would rather die than live with it. Most people are able to cope with this, but in some cases it is impossible for the patient to do so. In ancient times, euthanasia was encountered often. However, suicide was condemned. During the sixteenth century, some people began to see it as more of a personal choice. It eventually became decriminalized, but assisted suicide and euthanasia are still crimes in most countries. 3 The introduction of powerful analgesics caused a rise in the interest in the â€Å"right to die† movement. It was advocated in the late 1800’s, and has been a topic for debate since the early 1900’s. Doctors have been helping patients die for centuries. Some cultures today have people that will stop eating and wait to die when they become seriously ill. 13 The â€Å"right to die movement† is encouraged by several factors. Modern technology has come along so as to extend human life. The fear of the dying process is of great concern to some people, especially when it accompanies physical and psychological suffering. Patients are becoming more in charge of their own fate and have more of a voice. Finally, there is concerns about the high health care costs. They cost more than 60 billion annually, and 1/3 of Medicaid payments go to patients in their last year of life. 13 Medicine’s main goal has always been the preservation of life. Now, this is being challenged in an attempt to change it. The two sides of the issue are being debated. On one side are the people who think it is not a physicians place to kill a patient, because he/she should only help, not harm. The opposition thinks that suffering is the real harm. You read "Psychological Perspective on Assisted Suicide" in category "Essay examples" The debate comes at the point of the onset of the terminal illness, when it will be time to decide on the means. This is sometimes called the â€Å"Kevorkian moment. â€Å"2 Proponents give examples of people who could be helped, while opponents give counterexamples of people who may be harmed. There are many moral and legal considerations. The support for a physician’s participation is increasing. According to opinion polls, about 60% of people in the U. S. are supporters. About 15% of physicians practice it when it is justified. 7 It is actually impossible to know for sure how much takes place because incidents are usually kept secret to avoid prosecution. Most people who have reported that they would consider it give reasons such as that they would not want to be a burden, would not want to live in pain, or would not want to depend on machines or others. The main argument for the support of euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide is that people should have the right to control their life and death, and should be able to end their lives when they wish if they are suffering needlessly. It is argued that it is a private choice and society has no right to be concerned. They usually portray it as a case of individual liberty. One source states that â€Å"euthanasia, if legalized, would be the ultimate civil liberty, since it would secure the freedom to determine and to control our own death. â€Å"8 Physicians must then decide if they are willing to take part in either directly killing the patient or by assisting the patient in suicide. The physician should follow the demands of the patient, even if it means killing them, because that would respect their wishes and the rights of the patient. Physicians treat patients with the purpose of restoring health. If the patient can’t be restored to a reasonable level of living, it shouldn’t be wrong to discontinue it. Euthanasia supporters often try to get sympathy by relating stories to make one feel like suicide is the only option in their case. The media has sparked a lot of interest, and continues to show stories like this. Simi Linton, psychologist, says, â€Å"I’m disturbed at how the media treats it, as: here are these poor folks; let’s help them end their lives† (qtd. in 1). It makes it seem as if would be inhumane to deny anyone this option. Basically, it is the quality of life that is the main concern of the patient. They may feel that life is not worth living in their state. It would not be humane to insist that every means be taken to keep someone alive. A physician’s main concern is to relieve suffering, so sometimes there is only one way to achieve that goal. At the time that efforts are no longer doing any good, the main concern is to make the patient comfortable and alleviate symptoms such as pain. 6 Drugs do not always get rid of all the pain, especially when it is excruciating. Sometimes a patient will be drugged into unconciousness with severe pain that cannot be controlled. 9 This does not seem like effective pain management to me. I don’t believe people will be satisfied living in such a state as that. They would want to be put out of their misery. Legalization would cause many changes. It would give rights to the person who does it, rather than the person who dies. It is about the right to kill, rather than the right to die. 9 Physicians would need to be trained in more areas regarding this, such as information about medications and dosage, and about the mentality of the patient. They will need to gain expertise in understanding patients’ motivations for requesting it, assessing their mental status, diagnosing and treating depression. The medical profession is developing greater expertise in managing terminal illness but would need to develop similar expertise in responding to requests for physician-assisted suicide. The debates over assisted suicide have forced clinicians to be more aware of what can be done to relieve suffering. Doctors are improving pallitive care and their own behavior. Patients are becoming more aware of their options. The problems associated with legalizing assisted suicide are usually not talked about when the proponents make their argument. The discussion of the potential for abuse, the ways it could be prevented or better helped are put on a backburner. The main argument against legaliziation is that human life is sacred, and it is not a human right to take it away. Some say that there is no need for suicide, because health care should resolve all problems and pain management has come a long way. Most people who commit suicide suffer from depression, so it is often debated whether this could be the reason for someone wanting assisted suicide. Often, when their depression is treated, the patient responds well, and would like to live. A regular physician cannot make the determination of whether a patient is suffering from depression. This is something that is difficult to diagnose in terminally ill patients. Just because a patient requests suicide, doesn’t mean this will be an appropriate solution. Sometimes, a patient may even request suicide, but when the time draws near, they change their mind because it did not seem so imminent before. The will to request the suicide must be voluntary, but this decision is left up to the physician. How can a physician judge whether it is voluntary or not? It is also difficult to determine what terminal is. When people say that it should be reserved for people who are terminally ill, they cannot define it. It is used to mean someone whose death will occur in a relatively short time. Some people may say that if they will die in 6 months it is considered terminal, but it is difficult to determine exactly how long someone has to live. They may live much longer than that. A person could also be terminal who is in a vegitative state, but will live for years in that state with continued medicine. People cannot reach an agreement on what the definition of terminal would be, some even say old age is terminal. Marianne Smith, Program Development Director of the Death with Dying National Center defines it as â€Å"an illness in which there is no chance of recovery and that death is imminent. â€Å"15 Activists of euthanasia use the demonstration that suicide is the only means to control unbearable pain. Most pain is supposed to be able to be eliminated, or greatly reduced. Many people do not get enough pain control. 6 One reason is the underknowlege many physicians have about this, and that they are afraid the patient will become addicted. Also, too much pain medication can cause symptoms that may be worse than the disease was itself. One source says that â€Å"patients and physicians alike may be unaware of the options available in the medical system, including advances in pain control that could help patients but are not routinely provided. â€Å"3 There may be no solution to these problems, but some things can be done. Better health care education, more access to health care, and informing patients of their rights. 6 Everyone has the right to pain relief. Patients should get adequate health care, and not killed. Physicians argue that if good care of the dying is being provided, then a request for suicide would be rare. 4 Some patients may want to consider suicide, but are incapable of administering medicine. Some people may also lose their mental capabilities, and will be unable to request it. It is difficult to assess fairness in cases like these. Some people use a form of advance directive and make their request before deterioration occurs. It is hard to extend the same rights to all patients without causing abuse. If someone is unable to communicate their request, it would be frightening for someone to make that decision for them and to say that their life is not worth living, so we must kill them. There is great potential for abuse if it were to be legalized. Depressed people, elderly, and very frightened people would be greatly affected. People may feel pressured into giving up. Elderly are especially vulnerable to this. Now that there are more people living longer, this problem will increase. They may tend to feel they are a burden on their families, or are selfishly consuming resources. If a physician advocates it, they also may be swayed. People may also feel distrustful of the physician’s advice. This may cause a hardship in getting appropriate care. 10 Legalization will only encourage more people to take part in it. It does not seem as if we would be ready for this to occur, because we are only just beginning to explore some realms of the medical world. It took a long time to figure out about adequate care for many patients and when is the right time to withdraw life support, so it would not seem that we would be ready for this step. The â€Å"slippery slope† argument is used by opponents, saying that legalization will lead to involuntary euthanasia. My own opinion is that if assisted suicide were legalized, we may not be as inclined to advance medical progress and knowlege. It would seem easier to just put the patient out of his/her misery. They may not use their experience to increase what we know about medicine and learn how to help the illness, or better cope with it. Proponents have said that euthanasia should be considered â€Å"medical treatment. † If this is so, there could be great potential for abuse. Then it may be more likely to be administered to people who cannot make the request. Some decisions that have gone to court say that assisted suicide is a constitutional right and that someone else can make the decision for the patient. If direct killing can be legalized by someone else, someone who is not competent could be euthanized without ever expressing that wish. It seems to be inevitable that patient are going to be killed without permission if legalization occurs, even with rules about consent. The main argument of how abuse of the practice could occur is called the â€Å"slippery slope argument. † It says that â€Å"even if particular acts of killing are sometimes morally justified with particularly pain-ridden patients, sanctioning practices of killing would run serious social risks of abuse, misuse and neglect. 3 The bad consequences of legalization would occur over time as this practice became more used. Another potential form of abuse lies in the fact that it would be cheaper to euthanize a patient than to continue medical treatment. It is thought that it could become a means of health care cost containment. Some of the main supporters of euthanasia are people concerned about lowering health care costs. 6 Religion has caused many people to debate it. Most churches are adamantly opposed to the idea of suicide. However, some Christians believe that God would not want them to suffer. 9 Although most religions and churches disagree with intentionally killing a patient, many people who hold this stand will allow the withdrawal of life support. It is believed that there is a difference between killing and letting die. Someone who is against euthanasia may agree with letting someone die who is being kept alive solely by life support that is not really helping them. 3 People feel that the intent in these cases is different. The more accepted approach does not involve killing. One interpretation of the difference shows that the intent is different because actively killing is aiming at death, and withdrawing support simply accepts that we are limited to help the dying and cannot reverse the process. 8 However, some peole believe that since death is the outcome no matter what, there is no moral difference between them. Another matter of intent distiction regards what is called the â€Å"double effect. † A physician will administer a pain medication to relieve pain, but knows that it may cause death. The patient would be in pain without it, but it may cause death if it is administered. It is usually believed to be moral if the doctor’s intent is to relieve the suffering, and not to cause death. It is allowed if the death is foreseen but not intended, because it is the intent that makes it wrong. Although suicide is no longer a crime, giving assistance in it is, everywhere except for Switzerland, Germany, Norway, and Uraguay. In Australia, a law was passed that allows terminally ill patients to ask for assistance by injection or taking drugs themselves. 7 There is a debate about it because Parliament wants to overturn the statute, which is the world’s only voluntary euthanasia statute. In the Netherlands, it is actually a crime, but it has been ruled that physicians may assist in death under certain conditions. Some of these are that the patient must be ruled competent, and two doctors must conclude that the patient has less than 6 months to live. 8 The United States has used them as an example to see what would happen if it were to occur here. They are having problems with it, mainly with abuse. The physicians there have reported that the main reasons people request it are â€Å"low quality of life, the relatives, inability to cope, and no prospect for improvement. Some sources show that people are requesting it for physical symptoms that it is almost ridiculou that they would go to such an extreme measure for. I think that the potential for abuse here may be great, because it is getting out of hand over there. People are becoming afraid to go to hospitals because euthanasia is becoming so commonplace. It now accounts for 15% of deaths. 1000 unconsenting deaths occur each year. 1. In 1994, the state of Oregon passed a ballot that gives limited physician-assisted suicide legality. This makes it the first in the nation to do so. A doctor must determine the patient has less than six months to live. A second doctor must decide that they are mentally competent and not suffering from depression. The patient must request it in writing with two witnesses, and then 48 hours before the doctor delivers the prescription the request must be repeated orally. 1 It must be a voluntary act. However, those jugements are left to the physician. So far, it has never been put into action. Other states are considering similar legislation, such as California which has proposed a law that is similar to the guidelines that the Dutch have adopted. Lawsuits in Washington State and New York were ruled by the 9th and 2nd U. S. Circuit Courts of Appeals that laws prohibiting physician-assisted suicide are unconstitutional. The legal fate will be determined by the Supreme Court. In 1990, the decision of Cruzan v. Missouri Department of Health resulted in people having the right to avoid unwanted medical treatment, including food and water. 5 It recognized the right to terminate unwanted medical treatment even when death would be the result. 14 People often use the Constitution as a basis for argument. The 14th amendment prohibits the state from depriving â€Å"any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law. † So to deny a dying patient medical assistance when requested is to â€Å"threaten this patient’s request for help is judged denial of constitutionally protected due process. â€Å"4 As the courts were in session to hear a case about whether terminally ill people have a constitutional right to physician assisted suicide, demonstrators sang and picketed outside a Supreme Court building. The emotions of the rights issue has been compared to that of abortion. Both of these issues dig into whether we have the right to choose such personal issues. People can feel very strongly about the issues of mercy killing, whether they oppose or support it. The lack of laws cause people to avoid prosecution for assisting in a suicide. Kevorkian has escaped prosecution because there is not a state law prohibiting it, according to a Michigan judge. 9 People are afraid that activities such as his would become widespread if assisted suicide were legalized. His actions have been opposed not because of the assistance, but because he had no real relationship with his patients and had not given them any kind of clinical evaluation. Many were also not terminally ill. 3 It seems to show what is lacking in the medical sysytem, or what could become of it. Every case of assisted suicide is not convicted or prosecuted, even in states that make it illegal. However, the fact that there are many landmark â€Å"right to die† cases, shows that the law is commited to the prohibition. However, the procedures are not described as killing. If this were the case, the act would have to be justified similar to killing someone out of self defense. 4 It is hard to define the conditions that there must be in order to make it legal, because there is so much that we do not know. For euthanasia to be ethical, there must be certain guidelines. The person must be a mature adult, and has been shown to be mentally competent and willing to make the decision. Some medical help will have already been given, and it should seem that the fight is hopeless. 9 Many organizations have beliefs on this and they try to educate the public on euthanasia and what their views are. I contacted Marianne Smith, the Program Development Director of the Death with Dignity National Center. 15 She explained to me in e-mail how the organization feels about euthanasia and what they do to educate the public about it. The organization is working toward better health care for paients. She feels that assisted suicide should be legal, but that â€Å"physician-assisted dying should be the response of last resort,† and â€Å"when all other options fail to relieve unbearable suffering, when the patient is acting on his or her own initiative, is not clinically depressed, and is capable of administering the medication personally. The people who could be elgible are â€Å"only terminally ill, competent adults with decisionmanking capacity. † I also asked whether euthanasia could be avoided with adequate pain medicine. Her response was that â€Å"Physicians, medical associations and hospices all have stated that not all pain can be controlled. † Their view, which is one I encountered a lot, is that the medical professionals have not been trained adequately in pain management. Regarding the issues of potential â€Å"slippery slope† abuse, she says that physician’s aid in dying is more common than people realize, and legalization would just make it happen openly, instead of secretly. However, the state regulation should provide strict guidelines and penalties for violations. I think that it is hard to make sure that the decisions are correct, so it should be carefully thought out. We are dealing with a very serious issue, which is death. It should not be an easy decision to make or to carry out. Becaue death is the consequence, the decision to kill oneself, and carrying it out should be very difficult and carefully thought out. This would help ensure that people have thought about it enough and know that this is the best decision. I don’t know how a solution can be thought of to deal with the debate, but things such as more health care education and informing patients of their rights should be a consideration. I hope that if legalization ever were to take place, that they would carefully restrict who qualified for euthanasia. After all my research, most of my questions have been answered. It is difficult to come to a conclusion because there is no right or wrong answer. I don’t know how anyone can determine what should be done. Who can put a price on life and say who has the right to die? The basic choice is whether to let doctors help people die, and if so, how? I have found many great arguments either opposing or protesting this issue, which has led me to my final conclusions. When I began this paper, I dived into it thinking that I was going to condone the idea of assisted suicide. I knew I could convince someone that it should be the moral and legal thing to do. I could not imagine a life without the ultimate choice or having to endure great suffering. I was going to defend this side, but also show the opposing side. Once I got into the research, I found many facts that I had not known before about why it has not yet been legalized. Many questions and opinions showed me that there were many things I had not even bothered to think about before. What a surprise to me that I could begin a project as a supporter, and then turn around my views. I now see where the opposers are coming from. There are just too many problems and considerations to think about before this could ever happen, and there are alternate solutions. I cannot say that this has given me a complete turn in the opposite direction, but I am definitely leaning toward the opposing side except in extreme circumstances when nothing could ever help the patient. How to cite Psychological Perspective on Assisted Suicide, Essay examples

Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications Review Essay Example

Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications Review Paper Essay on Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications Star on the eve of the collapse; a child who is learning to read; blood cells attacking virus these are just some of the amazing complex objects of the physical world. Computer programs are too complex, but the complexity of a different kind. Einstein argued that there should be a simple explanation of natural processes, because God does not act out of whim or arbitrarily. Programmers do not have this consolation: the complexity with which it must deal, lies in the very nature of the system  » This quote could not be better characterize the complexity of our profession and the main purpose of this book.. The main thing that gives this book it is an opportunity to take a look from a different point of view on the process of development of software systems, to analyze the problems and difficulties that are inherent in it, and learn how to deal with them. The book opens our eyes to many conceptual issues, such as the nature of the complexity of software systems, organized and unorganized complexity, the role of hierarchy and abstraction limits of human capabilities in the context of the development of software systems We will write a custom essay sample on Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The authors write:. The experiments of psychologists, for example, Miller, show that the maximum number of pieces of information that a person can operate at the same time, approximately seven (plus or minus two). Probably, this restriction information channel capacity due to the volume of human short-term memory. And it is this limitation is a kind of litmus test for object-oriented decomposition of a complex system. The authors then go directly to an object model describing the basic provisions, explaining what is abstraction, encapsulation, modularity, hierarchy, inheritance . Argue in favor of using an object model for the solution of complex programming tasks. A very important question is the measurement of the quality and variety of abstractions relations between classes and objects. In the second part of the book, the authors describe a method of constructing a complex system based on the object model. First introduced graphic notation (now in the book used the UML, instead of notation Butch), and then covers the basics of the generalized development process. Heres what they say: The amateurs are constantly looking for a magical method or tool that could make the programming process trivial. In contrast, the professionals know that such a panacea does not exist. Amateurs want a ready-made recipes; professionals know that this approach leads to unsuitable design solutions and the piling up of lies, for which developers are hiding from the responsibility for wrong decisions previously adopted. Amateurs or ignore all the documentation, or make a fetish out of it, taking care more about how their paper product looks in the eyes of the customer than on its substance. Professional recognizes the importance of documentation, but always prefers sensible architectural i nnovations. The process of object-oriented analysis and design can not be described using the recipes, however it is defined well enough to become the basis for predictable, repeatable software development process.  » The authors emphasize the importance of architectural integrity, iterative and progressive development lifecycle . An interesting feature of the presentation is that the authors do not consider the rational unified process development only true in all cases, and accelerated methods (agile process) is fundamentally wrong. Choosing between rapid and systematic design should assess the risk. What are the risks faced by the project? Choose a style and appropriate methods for minimizing these risks . Selection of the design process does not mean that the job is done. This process should be updated throughout the project lifecycle. Tools that work well, you should leave, and tools that work badly to exclude. The aim must be a continuous improvement process based on practical experience.  » The third part of the book consists of examples of applications covering different subject areas. The main problem of the examples in the field of object-oriented analysis and design is something that is very difficult for them to show iterative development process. You can not on the pages of the book tell you how to think outstanding design, taking certain decisions. As he analyzes the requirements, how he feels, where lies the catch and needed to clarify the requirements of the user, and in any case to contact the domain expert. How to identify the abstraction which side they look better, how to identify the essential characteristics of an object for your particular task. All this, unfortunately, very difficult to describe the examples. But with all this, examples are useful and can help you to draw certain conclusions in certain circumstances, your professional activity. So if this book will make you a superior architect? Frankly, I do not know After learning process, just as the process of software development is iterative and progressive. The mere existence of this book on the shelf is not a guarantee of success of your projects. After reading this book, you will not be able to in his first draft with ease to analyze conflicting user requirements, you will not discover the secrets of object-oriented decomposition and your abstract will be far from ideal. After all, the book its just a trend, it is not the freeway, on which you can shoot at breakneck speed, its just a barely noticeable path through the thorny path, whose name object-oriented analysis and design .

Linear Programming Essay Example

Linear Programming Essay Example Linear Programming Essay Linear Programming Essay Linear Programming After completing this chapter you should be able to: identify a product which maximises the contribution per unit of scarce resource when there is only one scarce resource, and determine the optimum solution. formulate an LP model to solve for the optimal product mix which maximises profits, or for cost minimisation problems to minimise costs. solve 2 variable problems graphically. use a spreadsheet to solve LP problems with any number of variables. interpret the sensitivity reports of spreadsheet solutions to LP problems to test objective function coefficient sensitivity, determine shadow prices and RHS ranging. rform throughput accounting and solve problems using the concept of the Theory of Constraints. Introduction In this chapter we continue with our profit planning, or product mix, decisions. We extend CVP analysis in the last chapter by introducing the notion of scarce resources. Although CVP analysis does not provide answers regarding optimum product mixes (mixes which maximise profits or minimise costs) one advantage of CVP analysis is that it focuses attention on products with high contribution margins. Managers and salespeople can often direct their efforts to increasing output and sales of high ontribution margin products and thereby maximise the contribution towards fixed costs and profits. Unfortunately, it is not always desirable to attempt to maximise the sales of high contribution margin products, at the expense of those with lower margins. Most firms have constraintsl (in the short run) on production constraints which limit the volume of output. In such cases it is preferable sometimes not to emphasise the sales of high contribution margin products. Rather, attention should be directed to the contribution margin per unit of scarce resources required to produce the products. Thus, sometimes products with low contribution margins also have low resource requirements, and can be highly profitable. We shall now focus on this type of analysis. Multi 9 9-1 A firms two products are both produced on a single machine. Product 1 requires 2 hours of machine time per unit of product while Product 2 requires 4 hours per unit. There is a maximum of 20 000 hours of machine time available per time period. Product 1 has a contribution margin of $4 per unit, Product 2 a margin of $5 per unit. profitable, generating $5 per unit as against Product 1 s $4 per unit. But let us check this out. If all machine time were devoted to Product 2, which requires 4 hours per unit, it would be possible to produce 20 000/4 = 5000 units per period. These 5000 units would each generate $5 contribution margin, providing a total contribution (variable profit) of 5000($5) = $25 000. If, instead, we concentrated on Product 1, which requires 2 hours of machine time per unit, it would be possible to produce 20 000/2 = 0 000 units, each earning $4 contribution margin, giving a variable profit of 10 000($4) = $40 000. This is $15 000 more than it is possible to earn from Product 2. It may seem surprising that the product with the lower contribution margin is the more profitable to produce. What is important, however, is not the contribution margin per unit of product, but the contribution margin per unit of the limiting resource. As Table 9-1 demonstrates, Product 1 earns the higher contribution margin per machine hour, $2. 00 per MH versus only $1. 25 per MH for Product 2. Contribution Margin per unit Machine Hours per unit Contribution Margin per Machine Hour Product 1 $4 2 $4/2=$2. oo Product 2 $5 4 $5/4=$1. 25 Table 9-1 : Contribution margin per unit of limiting resource Thus, with one limiting resource, we should produce only one product, the one with the highest contribution margin per unit of that limiting resource. In example 9-1 we should maximise the production of Product 1 which has the higher contribution margin per machine hour. It would not pay to produce a mix of the two, that is, some of each product. The reason is that for every unit of Product 2 which is produced a ontribution of $5 would be earned but an opportunity cost of $8 is incurred. That is, in the time that it takes to produce one unit of Product 2 (4 hours of machine time) two units of Product 1 could be made earning a contribution margin of 2x$4 = $8, leaving the firm $3 worse off. Two Limiting Resources production, because it may not be possible to obtain the same profitability rankings on different scarce resources. Consider example 9-2. Example 9 9-1, both products have to proceed through a labour-intensive finishing process. Both products require hour of finishing labour, but there is a maximum of 8000 hours of skilled finishing labour available per time period. Having learned our lesson about calculating contribution margin per unit of scarce resource, we now proceed to calculate the contribution margin per hour of finishing labour for each product, as shown in Table 9-2. Finishing Labour Hours per Finishing Hour $411-$4. 00 $511-$5. 0 Table 9-2: Contribution margin per unit of limiting resource Product 1 generates $4 per finishing hour, while Product 2 generates $5 per finishing hour. Thus Product 2 is more profitable in terms of contribution per hour of finishing abour. We are now faced with a problem of conflicting profitability rankings. There are two scarce resources, machine time and finishing time. Product 1 is more profitable in terms of machine resources consumed but Product 2 is more profitable in terms of finishing resources. Since these profitability rankings conflict, we cannot determine the optimum action using this type of analysis. We have to use a technique known as linear programming. In general, when there are multiple constraining resources there are usually conflicting profitability rankings, and linear programming must be used to determine the optimum product mix. Linear Programming achieve some objective such as profit maximisation or cost minimisation. It is assumed that there are constraining resources (such as limited production or distribution facilities) or market factors (demand etc. ) which prevent a firm from producing and selling unlimited quantities of individual products, and hence the aim is to optimise the use of these constraining resources. The word linear indicates that linearity is an assumption behind this technique. It is assumed that cost and revenue functions are linear, and that there is a linear relationship between inputs and outputs. If the output of a product is doubled, resource requirements are doubled. Care is needed when using this analysis that linearity is a reasonable assumption, and that the data are reasonably accurate. A convenient way of introducing LP is by means of the graphical method, but this restricts us to somewhat trivial examples involving two variables. For problems with more than two variables we need to use the simplex method. There are many specialised LP computer programs employing the simplex method. Also, these problems can be solved using most popular spreadsheets. Spreadsheet solutions will lso be illustrated. Maximisation Problems Example 9 9-2, where we have two products and two constraints (machine hours and finishing hours). In addition, period fixed costs are $18 000. We are required to formulate an LP model for this example and solve it to determine the product mix which will maximise the firms period net profit. A linear programming model consists of two parts, an objective function and a set of constraints. First, we formulate the objective function. Let xl represent the number of units of Product 1 to be produced, and x2 the number f units of Product 2. The objective is to maximise period net profit, which could be expressed in the form Maxtrntse P = 41+52 18 OOO (9-1) where the coefficients of xl and x2 are 4 and 5, which are the respective contribution margins of products 1 and 2, and 18 000 represents the period fixed costs. We can, however, simplify the analysis by ignoring fixed costs at this stage, and simply maximise variable profit (total contribution margin): Maximise P = 41 +52 (9-2) Fixed costs can then be subtracted from the optimum variable profit to give optimum net profit. Now we turn to the constraint set. First, there is a machine constraint: Product 1 there is a maximum of 20 000 machine hours available per period. Then, 2X1+4X2 = 20 ooo (9-3) is one of several ways of stating this information. This expression states that the machine time is to be fully used (i. e. to capacity). Graphically, Equation (9-3) would appear as shown in Figure 9-1 . Figure 9-1 The graph of Equation (9-3) is obtained by finding the two points 10 000 and 5000 on the xl and x2 axes respectively, and Joining them with a straight line. If no units of product 2 are made, then x2 = O, and we have 21 + 20000, e 21 = 20000, and hus xl = 10 000. Similarly; if no units of product 1 are made, then xl = O, and we have 2(0) + 42 = 20 000 and hence x2 = 5000. Strictly, the line should extend further at each end, but since on either of these extensions one of the variables would be negative, indicating negative production, interest is focused only in the positive quadrant. The line segment in Figure 9-1 represents combinations of xl and x2 which fully utilise the machine capacity of 20 000 hours. There are many possible solutions, some being integer values of xl and x2 while others are non-integer solutions. In eneral, LP solutions may be non-integral, and if only integers are acceptable one should use Integer Programming. Some possible solutions which represent combinations of whole units of production of xl and x2 are: (0,5000), ie xl † O, 12 (2000,4000), 2 000, (4000000), 4 000, 6 000, 2000 (8000,1000), 8 000, 1 ooo (10000,0), 10000, If the assumption of fully utilising machine capacity is relaxed, so that although 20 000 hours represents maximum machine time, less than 20 000 hours may be consumed if desirable, Equation (9-3) is converted to the inequality (which is graphed in Figure 9-2): 2X1+4X2 20 ooo Figure 9-2 Graphically, possible solutions are now extended to encompass not only points along the line segment, but also all of the area below the line, anywhere in the shaded portion of Figure 9-2. In addition to the solutions possible in (9-3), further possibilities exist in (9-4), such as Xl = 3000, = 1000, or Xl = 2000, 12 = 2000. It may be noted that in general, equations are tighter than inequalities, and restrict the number of alternative solutions. The second constraint, finishing labour, must also be considered. Given that both products require 1 hour of finishing time, and a maximum availability of 8000 hours, his constraint may be expressed in the form IXI+1X2 8000, or Simply Xl+ 12 08000 (9-5) Considered on its own, this constraint is shown in Figure 9-3. But this second constraint cannot be considered alone. It must be considered simultaneously with the first constraint. That is, the two inequalities must be considered together: Xl+X20 8000 (9-6) Both of these constraints should be drawn on one graph (superimposed on each other) to form the area of feasible solutions, illustrated as the shaded portion of Figure 9-4. Only the shaded area satisfies both constraints, being the area common to both constraints. This shaded area is a polygon containing the solution set. The set of points described by the polygon is convex. Figure 9-4 It will be noticed that once the second constraint was added the area of feasible solutions was reduced. Whenever another constraint having no new variables is added, the area of feasible solutions is less than or equal to the prior situation. We have already mentioned that we ignore negative values for xl and x2, because negative production values are not economically meaningful. Nevertheless, such a restriction is made explicit in an LP model, so that to (9-6) we should add the non- egativity constraints xl ,x200: That is, xl or x2 may be greater than zero, or equal to zero, but not less than zero (e, not negative). Although the constraints in (9-7) limit the available alternatives, they do not provide a unique answer to the decision problem of how much of each product to produce. The objective function in (9-2) which indicates the aim of maximising variable profit, is used to appraise the various possible solutions, and must be added to (9-7) to present a full statement of the problem: subject to 21+42 20 OOO so-profit Line Solution Method (machine constraint) finishing constraint) (9-8) can be added to the graph depicted in Figure 9-4. The objective function can take an infinite number of positions on the graph, each position being an so-profit line. If we examine the objective function P = 41+52 we note that it is the equation of a straight line with a negative slope of -4/5 (which can be read straight from the coefficients if xl is plotted on the horizontal axis). Formally, we can show that this is correct. The equation of a straight line is usually of the form y = mx+b where y is plotted on the vertical axis, m is the gradient and b is the y-intercept. We have placed x2 on the vertical axis, so let us convert the objective function to a form which corresponds with y = mx+b: 41+52 is converted to 52 = -4xl 12 = +P/5 So in (9-9) we verify that the slope (m) is equal to -4/5. The x2 intercept (not of great interest to us) is P/5. Thus the objective function has a slope of -4/5, and can take on many parallel positions each of which gives a different value for P. So, if one position is plotted, other positions are merely parallel shifts of this line. The further from the origin the objective function line is, the higher is the profit level. Therefore the optimum solution occurs when the objective function is as far from the origin as possible, but is Just touching the solution set. At its highest point it may touch a vertex on either axis, such as xl=8000 or x2=5000, or at the point of intersection of the two constraints, in all three cases there being a unique solution. In some cases it may lie along a constraint, indicating multiple optima. To make an initial plot of this objective function which has a slope of -4/5, we Join the points 4 on the vertical axis and 5 on the horizontal, or some multiple of them; for xample, 4000 on the vertical (x2) axis and 5000 on the horizontal (xl) axis, shown as a broken line in Figure 9-5. We then use a ruler and move it parallel to and up from the initial plot until we get a line Just touching the solution set. In this case there is a unique solution because the objective function (broken line) is Just touching a vertex at the point (6000,2000) meaning a production of 6000 units of Product 1 and 2000 units of Product 2. We either read these values directly from the graph, or else we determine them by solving simultaneously the equations of the two straight lines hich intersect at the desired point. Figure 9-5 Solving simultaneously: 8 ooo so 12=2000 and by substitution Xl = 6000 Note that the optimum solution, given two constraints, calls for production of both products. In fact, there can never be more products than the number of constraints, but there may be fewer. The solution (6000,2000) is the point of maximum profit. We calculate the variable profit by substituting 6000 for xl and 2000 for x2 into the objective function: p = 4xl +512 = $34 000. Finally, we can subtract the period fixed costs to obtain net profit: Net profit = $34 000-$18 OOO = $16 000. Relative Gradient Solution Method Instead of actually plotting the objective function to determine the optimum product mix we could simply compare the gradients of the objective function and the constraints. Reading from (9-8) we have the following gradients: Objective function -4/5 = -0. Machine constraint -2/4 = -1/2=-0. 5 Finishing constraint -1/1 † We note that the gradient of the objective function (-0. 8) lies between the gradients of the two constraints (-0. 5 and -1. 0). Therefore the optimum solution will be at the intersection of the two constraints. If the objective function were flatter than either onstraint (for example, a gradient of -0. 4) the optimum solution would be on the x2 axis at (0,5000); if it were steeper than either constraint (say -2) the optimum solution would be on the xl axis at (8000,0). Check these out by altering the angle of your ruler and pushing it away from the origin. Corner Point Solution Method A third method for determining the optimum solution is to evaluate the objective function at each corner point of the feasible set. This is the way the simplex method works, starting from the point (0,0) and working around from vertex to vertex until the largest objective function value is found. So we simply substitute the co-ordinates for each extreme vertex (corner point) in the feasible set into the objective function to find the maximum value. In Figures 9 9 9-3, plus the additional information that no ore than 3000 units of Product 2 can be sold per time period. Determine the optimum mix and period net profit. The new LP model will be simply the previous one in (9-8) augmented by the inclusion of the additional market constraint: Maximise 41+52 Subject to 21+42 0 20 000 (machine constraint) xl+ x2 0 8 000 (finishing constraint) 12 C] 3000 (market constraint) (9-10) Observation of Figure 9-6 reveals that the previous solution still holds: xl=6000, x2=2000, net profit = $16 000. Although the new constraint has reduced the size of the solution set, it has had no impact on the optimum solution. Spreadsheet